Introduction: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) affects 1 in 1,000 people in industrialised countries,
mainly women of childbearing age. To prevent MS relapses, most patients receive
disease-modifying therapies (DMTs). However, most DMTs
- - with the exception of interferons
and glatiramer acetate - are not approved during pregnancy.
Consequently, DMTs are regularly
discontinued during pregnancy with a subsequently increased risk of relapses. Thus, relapses
during pregnancy are a common phenomenon. The average relapse rate per year in pregnant MS
patients not taking DMTs during the 1st and 2nd trimester is nearly identical to the
pre-partum period after which it significantly declines during the 3rd Trimester. The German
Neurologic Society estimates that approximately 25% of all pregnant women with MS will suffer
a relapse during their pregnancy period(s).
It is generally recommended by European and US guidelines to treat MS relapses during
pregnancy with the synthetic glucocorticoid (GC) methylprednisolone (MP), which is thought to
be harmless for the unborn. However, regardless of the undoubtedly positive effects of GCs
for MS relapse treatment, there is considerable doubt as to whether synthetic GCs are as low
in side effects for the child as MS guidelines assume. The fetus develops in the presence of
very low GC levels because it is unable to produce cortisol until the end of pregnancy and
about 90% of maternal cortisol is being inactivated by the placental enzyme 11ß-HSD2. In
contrast to maternal cortisol, synthetic GCs are no substrate for the placental enzyme
11ß-HSD2 and, thus, pass the placenta without being inactivated. Once within the fetal
circulation, GCs interfere with the development of the fetal central nervous system (CNS).
The effects of synthetic GCs on fetal development and health and disease in later life as
well as the mechanisms mediating these effects are best characterised for betamethasone
exposure to induce fetal lung maturation in babies threatening premature labour as this
treatment is used in nearly 10% of all pregnancies. In various studies excess exposure to
synthetic GCs is associated with reduced birth weight, altered fetal brain development e.g.,
by direct effect on neuro- and gliogenesis via anti-proliferative effects on neural
stem/progenitor cells, and persisting functional changes of the stress axis with its two
arms, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Supraphysiological GC concentrations are also thought to reset the set point of the negative
feedback regulation of the fetal HPAA which results in an increase of HPAA activity in later
life. Increased HPAA activity has been associated with increased stress sensitivity and a
number of behavioural changes and neuropsychiatric disorders including anxiety,
depressive-like disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The
relationship between adverse environmental influences during critical periods of fetal life,
such as exposure to excess GC, and offspring health in later life is the basis of the 'Fetal
Programming' hypothesis.
A predecessor study of the investigators' work group tested the hypothesis that fetal
betamethasone treatment impairs structural and functional brain development as well as stress
sensitivity leading to disturbances in overall neurocognitive performance and behaviour in
later life. It is noteworthy, that the dosage of betamethasone (2 x 12mg, 24h apart) was
approximately 300-fold lower than the dosage used to treat MS relapses (1000mg over 3-5
days). As a major study outcome, the investigators noticed detrimental effects of prenatal
betamethasone exposure on general cognitive ability at the age of 8
Intelligence
quotient (IQ)-scores in children who were prenatally exposed to betamethasone were on average
10.5 points lower than in controls, with a large effect size of d = 0.68. Even though
IQ-scores of betamethasone-exposed children were still within the expected population range,
the investigators assume that this difference is clinically relevant and impedes future life
success of the participants. In addition, children exposed to betamethasone showed a
significant increase in ADHD related symptoms on the International Classification of Diseases
(ICD)-10-based rating scale, the Diagnostik-System für psychische Störungen nach ICD-10 und
DSM-5 für Kinder und Jugendliche-III, with a medium effect size of d = 0.51.
Electroencephalographic (EEG) analysis showed that BM-exposed children had a higher spectral
edge frequency at rest and during stress suggesting a reduced overall neuroelectric
relaxation capacity. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) analysis revealed a resetting of the ANS in
betamethasone-exposed children.
Objectives: The primary goal of this study is to examine the general cognitive ability as a
marker of brain development of children of MS patients who received MP to treat an MS relapse
during pregnancy. The secondary goals are to determine the effects of MP administered during
pregnancy on offspring structural and functional brain development and neuropsychiatric and
behavioural performance. Stress sensitivity and epigenetic changes of GC receptor function
will be measured to determine underlying mechanisms.
The study is based on the following hypotheses:
Fetal exposure to MP during relapse treatment in pregnant MS patients leads to.
- - disturbances in structural and functional brain development due to the maturational
potential of MP which induces asymmetries in the complex sequence of the maturation of
cerebral functional systems with lifelong changes in brain function,
- permanent alterations in HPAA sensitivity and autonomic function which are associated
with neuropsychiatric and behavioural disturbances in later life, and.
- - alterations in GC receptor function and methylation of the GC receptor gene (NR3C1) and
the H19/IGF2 locus as the underlying mechanisms linking MP exposition during pregnancy
and offspring cognitive and behavioural functioning in later life.
Methods: The investigators will carry out a multicentre, observational, cross-sectional study
in children and adolescents aged 8 to 18 years. The study design is retrospective due to
ethical considerations of withholding the standard relapse treatment and the long study
duration of at least 10 years. Following recruitment, all participants will undergo the same
examination procedures in one study visit consisting of two days. By extending the study
visit to two days, the investigators ensure stress-free examinations. In general, day 1 and
day 2 of the study visits take place in direct succession. However, in case of scheduling
issues or if the children and their parents live close by and do not want to stay overnight,
there may be a few days in between.
The sequence of examinations was chosen in such a way that blood sampling and
neuropsychological examinations induce as little stress as possible for the participants.
1. Functional brain development: The investigators will apply state-of-the-art
neurocognitive, behavioural and mental health measures to determine the stage of
functional brain development: General cognitive ability (primary endpoint) is determined
using German age-appropriate versions of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales and
Screening (RIAS) intelligence test. Behaviour is measured using three external
assessment questionnaires which are routinely used in clinics and the scientific
community. The German rating scale Fremdbeurteilungsbogen für
Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörungen (FBB-ADHS) is based on the ICD-10
criteria for ADHD and assesses inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The
child behaviour checklist (CBCL), an established diagnostic screening procedure,
measures psychopathological abnormalities in children and adolescents. The strengths and
difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) assesses children's strengths and weaknesses. The
Continuous Performance Test (CPT) is a clinically and scientifically established
instrument to detect selective attention, vigilance, and impulsive behaviour with
sufficient reliability and validity. Motor development is assessed using the Movement
Assessment Battery for Children
- - Second Edition (M-ABC 2), which allows a reliable and
time-efficient assessment of motor-coordinative deficits.
2. Structural brain development: The stage of structural brain development will be
quantified based on a volumetric T1-MRI standard sequence using markers such as
gyrification and cortical thickness as well as the BrainAge Score, which was development
by the investigators' research group. The investigators expect that prenatal MP has a
significant effect on brain age since GCs accelerate tissue differentiation and
maturation at the expense of tissue growth.
3. Stress sensitivity and autonomic function: The individual stress sensitivity including
the function of the HPAA and the autonomic nervous system is examined using the Trier
Social Stress Test (TSST). This is an established and commonly used tool for children to
generate a reproducible psychophysiological stress response using a simulated
examination situation. It comprises a 10 minute rest period and a task period consisting
of five-minute story-telling and mental arithmetic periods, which is completed in front
of an "examination committee". Saliva samples for measurement of cortisol levels and
alpha-amylase are taken before and during the stress test to determine HPAA and
sympathetic activity at rest and during activation. In addition, continuous
electrocardiography (ECG) and EEG leads are performed. The autonomic activity is also
determined using HRV analysis from the derived ECG based on established HRV standards as
well as on innovative nonlinear information based approaches developed at the
department. Autonomic activity reflected in HRV is a sensitive marker of disturbances in
the neurodevelopmental trajectory. Neurophysiological activation is measured using power
spectral and nonlinear EEG analysis techniques.
4. Mechanism: The investigators will determine GC receptor sensitivity and epigenetic
changes of the NR3C1 promoter and the H19/IGF2 locus.
Expected Impact: The results of this study will improve the ability of clinicians to make an
evidence-based benefit-risk assessment regarding the continuation of a DMT during pregnancy
under consideration of its safety under 'real world' conditions in relation to the potential
long-term risks of an acute relapse therapy with MP for the health of the unborn child in
later life.
The investigators expect that the results will provide an additional argument
- (1) to continue
immunomodulatory relapse prophylaxis, e.g. with interferons during pregnancy, especially in
light of their recently recognized relative safety for the child, or (2) to choose a
long-acting DMT such as cladribine that provides lasting protection from relapses during
pregnancy.
